Wild and Wooly Weeds

Prior to about 12,000 years ago we humans had lived lives of hunter-gatherers for some 200,000 years. We roamed the land, selecting what food and shelter Nature offered. We gathered and hunted the provisions we needed. Like most animals, we lived light on the land. Our numbers were few and we moved to new territories, when natural resources became scarce. Mother Nature was in the driver's seat—not us.

The accepted story of human development is that we transitioned very gradually from hunter-gatherers, by first playing a minor role as horticulturists, in the sense of coming to realize that we could encourage plants that we found useful to us, and discourage problematic plants (weeds). The major transition in our culture, however, occurred when we shifted from horticulturalists to farming, about 12,000 years ago—establishing full-fledged agriculture. There is a fine line between cultivation and agriculture... both involve planning, planting, tending, and harvesting. I think an important distinction between them is that cultivation entails working with and encouraging crops, while agriculture is more about controlling Nature.

Thus, authority and power were the role increasingly taken on by humans. That story is being challenged by recent research, which pushes our transition to agriculture at least another ten thousand years or so earlier. One of the most recent findings suggesting that we took up agriculture much earlier comes from archaeological research in Israel, which dates farming to about 23,000 years ago in the Levant. Dating techniques get ever more accurate and increasingly sophisticated analytical techniques are also yielding fascinating results. For example microanalysis of teeth plaque of skeletons reveals their eating habits; chemical analysis of fossilized poop adds to the picture; and soil analysis further broadens our understanding.

What I found captivating about this 23,000-year-old Israeli site analysis is that the researchers found that the same weeds species which plagued farmers back then are still flourishing today in gardens and fields in Israel. Many of the vegetables grown back then are no longer around—having been replaced by newer breeds—but the ancient weeds persist. (In a similar manner, Nature's insects that we consider to be pests persist.) Despite our dislike, Nature assigns a crucial task to weeds: to quickly establish themselves in disturbed soils, so as to curtail erosion. Thus we are being rather self-centered when we condemn weeds as being worthless.

It’s very interesting that Israel's farmers are today fighting battles against the same weeds their deep ancestors did. I can relate to that. Nearly four decades ago we took up residence in a very rural, wooded area in Virginia. We cleared some trees to build a house and plant a garden. Immediately thereafter, new kinds of weeds (that don't grow in the forest) found a haven in our garden. New kinds of insects (that don't grow in the forest) found our luscious vegetables. We have been fending off these weeds and bugs ever since.

I am sure that thousands of years after I’m gone, many of these same weeds and insects will continue to thrive, despite what farmers do to try to control them. They will persist, as long as future farmers continue to offer them good pickings. 

AI Oinks

Artificial Intelligence (AI) is being employed in increasingly widening applications these days—often when an enormous amount of data needs to be sifted and analyzed. AI uses machine learning algorithms to program computers, which then teach themselves how to make sense of all the reams of information.

Now comes yet another (barnyard) use of AI, from researchers at the University of  Copenhagen, in Denmark, who have been studying how to decipher the various sounds emitted by pigs. The researchers do this in order to understand the animals’ feelings and emotions. 

We humans take pride in knowing that our language is more complex than any other creature, yet we do not have the last word in communications. Other critters may not possess the ability to emit the intricate sounds we do, but they do very well in communicating, as they often supplement sounds with visual clues, smells, and even taste. For example, trees possess a multi-faceted and sophisticated means of transferring information to each other through chemicals emitted and received through leaves and roots.

Our porcine friends also use various senses other than hearing (such as sight and smell) for sending their messages, but the Danish study focused just on their sounds—oinks, sniffles, grunts, and squeals. Pigs' behaviors were observed, as sound recordings were made. The goal was to relate their emotions to their grunts. The pigs were observed both on the farm and in the laboratory. They were placed in positive circumstances to promote positive emotions—such as suckling mom, playing with their mates, being reunited with family, etc. Negative situations to induce negative emotions included fights, castration, and waiting in the abattoir. (That last one sure is negative!)

From thousands of recordings and observations of hundreds of pigs in various circumstances, the AI analysis went to work, to discern what consistent vocal messages they were relaying. In general, when pigs are in positive situations, they emit short grunts, with very little difference in amplitude. When they are stressed, they tend to call out with high-pitched squeals. (Did it take all the computing power of AI to learn that?)

The hope of the Danish researchers is to help people who work with pigs to better understand their complex oinks and grunts, both to monitor their well being and to encourage better treatment on farms. A healthier pig is a happier pig... and tastes better. When these AI studies eventually get expanded to other domestic animals, it could lead to their improved psychological well being, as well. If farmers learn to treat their animals better, maybe fewer of them would be killed for food. Wouldn't it be hard to slaughter a happy pig who was joyously oinking about the barnyard?

Extraterrestrial Expertise

Regular readers of this blog know by now that I am fascinated by the possibility of life existing on other worlds. The more science learns about the broad spectrum of life here on Earth and some of its extremes, and the more exoplanets we discover, the more likely it seems that we may not be alone in the universe; that Earth is not the sole island of life, because life is so variable and planets are so abundant. This possibility of life elsewhere has captivated humans for millennia. While it remains conjecture, astronomers have embarked upon studies in recent decades that are revealing some fascinating aspects on the issue. 

We are currently engaged in various searches of the heavens, looking for a revelatory piece of evidence that we are not alone. These studies have continually evolved, as our technology has evolved. Most of these efforts have been driven by the technology that we possessed at the time we began them. What I have found fascinating, for example, is that our SETI (search for extraterrestrial intelligence) attempts have always been based upon what we could imagine alien technology might be like at the time these projects were initiated. They later became a bit outdated, as our technology advanced; so the SETI tools were accordingly updated. 

For example, many decades ago we looked into space for telltale flashes of light. Then we imagined that alien species might be sending out electromagnetic signals—radio waves. Recently, as more and more planets have been found (we have now discovered about 5000 exoplanets), some scientists maintain that we should be looking instead for how alien civilizations have altered the atmosphere of their home planets. They may have created biosignatures of gases as we have, such as oxygen and methane. 

Thus much of our search has been based on our guesses of the nature of alien technology that we had at the time. Given that our own technology has rapidly evolved and that extraterrestrial civilizations may be unimaginably advanced—how do we know that our current search methods are even sensible?

A recent question raised by some SETI researchers suggests a different approach. Rather than look for some sort of overt communication signal, might we instead seek what are called “technosignatures?” As life on Earth has evolved, our planet's atmosphere has changed (such as the increase of oxygen and methane mentioned above). Many millions of years ago carbon dioxide was the Earth’s dominant atmospheric gas, which later gave way to oxygen, with increasing touches of methane. As global warming is currently growing, however, carbon dioxide is once again increasing. We may soon be forced to choose to engage in planetary engineering, to control climate heating, since we lack the resolve to cut back on our consumption. Might we possibly be able to observe similar kinds of changes in the atmosphere of exoplanets?

As the field of SETI advances, we will likely continue to update our searches—based upon improved estimates of the possibilities and nature of advanced alien technology. Can we imagine the paths that other civilizations may have followed? If not, we may be looking down the wrong alley and missing the truth of alien technology. It's quite possible, for example, that they long ago decided to change direction, as they realized that their technology was leading them down a destructive blind alley; as we seem to be doing. Maybe they survived by moving other options higher up on their priority list—such as placing harmony and peace above technological advances.

The Bubble Nebula

This is a NASA photo taken by the Hubble Telescope.

UFO Unknowns—Part 2

In the late 20^th century a number of credible sightings by civilian and military pilots—especially American—occurred. These were not amateurs on the ground who might be prone to lively imaginations; they were trained pilots whose onboard sensors (such as radar) indicated something more than just a blinking light in the sky. Many of these pilots were leery of reporting their experiences, because of a concern that they might be considered unreliable or even to be unstable.

Then UFO sightings again increased in the early 21^st century, for reasons unknown. The incidents by reliable pilots also increased. Pressure on the US government intensified as a number of established institutions began to demand a report. This resulted in the government releasing a report in 2021—summarizing and revealing what had been found. The report, however, was incomplete, cryptic, unscientific, confusing, and very unsatisfying. In over 70 years of investigation, the authorities had little to offer in the way of explanations.

So yet another phase of government study has recently been launched. This time qualified scientists are involved, with the intent of conducting a more sound, rigorous study. The more credible military pilot encounters will be given particularly careful attention. The UFO (or now officially named UAP, unidentified aerial phenomena) community once again stands by waiting—but this time a more open and scientific process is expected.

One consistent point has repeatedly been made throughout the modern UFO era, however: despite thousands of interesting sightings and endless speculation, there has not once been any material object found or unequivocal photo been taken. Just one piece of spacecraft or even space trash from aliens would cast a completely different  light on the subject. It would lend a credibility far beyond anything we have now.

UFO Unknowns—Part 1

The mystery of UFOs (unidentified flying objects) has been with us for millennia—ever since humans looked up in the night sky and saw strange lights. Long before we were able to fly, these sightings probably seemed more like apparitions—ghostlike or godlike in origin. It wasn't until we developed flying craft that we began to interpret these phenomena as flying objects. In fact, they did not acquire the designation UFO until well into the 20^th century.

The modern era of UFOs began in1947, when someone spotted an object in New Mexico that was described as something like a saucer skipping across the sky—giving birth to the alternative designation “flying saucer.” The late 1940s was the beginning of the Cold War between the USSR and the USA, which included a race to arm each side with nuclear weapons. Americans were fearful, if not paranoid, of the Soviets, and so were often inclined to shudder at the possibility of the enemy having developed a secret flying weapon that threatened our existence.

UFO sightings proliferated in the USA in the mid 20^th century's Cold War atmosphere. As evidence that most of these events may be traced to American fears, analysts have pointed out that the number of North American sightings dropped off dramatically, north and south of the US border. Neither Mexicans nor Canadians reported anywhere near the incidents recorded in America.

I think this factor of public perception is crucial in framing the UFO phenomenon in the US, as well as the rest of the world. A persistent question throughout these sightings is, What are they? Russian craft? Public hallucinations? Extraterrestrial visitors? Weather balloons? Natural aerial events? Airplanes? Planets? (Venus has caused many reports.)

In fact, some 95% of incidents have been shown to be explained, not by human or alien craft, but due to some of the other causes listed above. There is no reason, for example, why UFOs should cluster around the USA—regardless of their origin. Fears and insecurities can play a major role in people’s reactions and imaginations.

Due to the concerns that these reports might possibly be caused by Soviet technological advances, the response of the US government in the early UFO days was assigned to the military. The investigations were held behind secretive doors, which fed public rumor that the truth was being suppressed. Conspiracies bloomed: a UFO had crashed in the American desert and the incident was being covered up by the military. The controversy simmered along, for the remainder of the 20^th century.

Many analyses were conducted, and the vast majority (that 95%) were shown to be explained by natural events and human craft. But the unresolved 5% continued to cause legitimate concern. Because the study of UFOs was being conducted by the US military, rather than a systematic scientific investigation, little progress was made. The US military established several programs in the last half of the 20^th century—each one with a different perspective. Each one was headed by a military officer who had his own biased slant on the issue. One program after another concluded its study with a different opinion, and none of them shed any light on the issue—let alone informed the public of its findings. The public was free to speculate about the truth of UFOs, in the absence of government candor on the issue.

Culture's Characteristics

In today's globe-trotting world we have become increasingly aware of the planet’s wide variety of cultures. Anthropologists have made the study of different cultures their purview, as they have traveled the world, seeking the customs and habits of various peoples—in order to understand the range of human civilizations.

I am currently taking an online course from St. Petersburg University in Russia, with the intent of developing a better understanding of Russian culture. The course begins with a succinct and useful definition of culture—consisting of a group's common and dominant (1) values, (2) beliefs, (3) attitudes, and (4) behaviors. Using that definition, several aspects of a people's culture that can be delineated are (1) collective—it is generally common across the populace, (2) situational—culture depends on several particular circumstances of the group, (3) learned—we are born culture-free and gradually assimilate our group's customs, (4) complex—there is considerable variation within any one group, and (5) dynamic—culture evolves.

When we examine the behaviors of a group of people, we can immediately note several obvious and visible aspects of its culture, such as (1) dress and fashions, (2) gestures, (3) speech and language, (4) dance, music, and other arts, (5) manners, etc. But there are also several subtle and hidden aspects that take time to understand, such as (1) how time is experienced, (2) their concept of authority, (3) how they solve problems, (4) what is considered beautiful or ugly, (5) how truth is perceived, (6) the difference between good and evil, etc.

So, back to the definition of culture: the first factor on the list above is the values held by a people. Research has shown that, while values differ between populaces, there is still a strong similarity in the values held across different populations. In order of priority, the commonalities of all cultures are (1) family life, (2) honesty, (3) health, (4) self-esteem, (5) self-reliance, (6) freedom and justice, (7) friendship, and (8) knowledge and learning. Thus it seems, that despite cultural differences, there is quite a bit of similarity across diverse populations.

There is a new cultural phenomenon emerging in the last couple of decades—something that can be described as global culture. Fostered by the internet, this world-wide culture spans political borders. Its values are being commonly held by an increasing number of people, who have taken on and share global concerns, such as ecological sustainability and concern for the welfare of the planet. Despite our many differences, our fear and suspicion of the other, and our propensity to turn to violence, I wonder if this global culture could possibly pull people together to take action on the climate crisis. Wouldn't that be nice?